juma e library

  Modern Surveying Basic control surveys Geodetic  surveys involve such extensive areas that allowance must be made for the Earth’s curvature. Baseline measurements for classical triangulation (the basic survey method that consists of accurately measuring a base line and computing other locations by angle measurement) are therefore reduced to  sea-level  length to start computations, and corrections are made for spherical excess in the angular determinations. Geodetic operations are classified into four “orders,” according to accuracy, the first-order surveys having the smallest permissible error. Primary triangulation is performed under rigid specifications to assure first-order accuracy. Efforts are now under way to extend and tie together existing continental networks by  satellite triangulation so as to  facilitate  the adjustment of all major geodetic surveys into a single world datum and determine the size and shape of the Earth spheroid with muc...

  Surveying  civil engineering Surveying , a means of making relatively large-scale, accurate measurements of the Earth’s surfaces. It includes the determination of the  measurement  data, the reduction and interpretation of the data to usable form, and, conversely, the establishment of relative position and size according to given measurement requirements. Thus, surveying has two similar but opposite functions: (1) the determination of existing relative horizontal and vertical position, such as that used for the process of  mapping , and (2) the establishment of marks to control  construction  or to indicate land boundaries. Surveying has been an essential element in the development of the human  environment  for so many centuries that its importance is often forgotten. It is an  imperative  requirement in the planning and execution of nearly every form of construction. Surveying was essential at the dawn of history, and some of th...

  STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS     vs   STRUCTURAL DESIGN   A structure is an assembly of materials which can carry applied loads (forces). If an engineering structure fails, people are likely to get injured/killed, hence, engineers study and investigate the behavior of structures with utmost precision. Man-made structures include buildings, bridges, dams, ships, airplanes, rockets, trains, cars, and other large structures. Structural engineers design and access structure to ensure that they are efficient and stable under the effects of various forces. Structural engineers are responsible for both structural analysis as well as design.  A civil engineer must have clear understanding of the differences between both. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS Structure analysis is the process to determine the response of a structure under applied loading conditions or combinations of various loads. portal frame with uniformly distributed load Analysis is done by making assump...